Urbanisation in India: Problems and Remedies
UPSC notes on urbanisation in India: Census 2011 data, census vs statutory towns, urban problems, the 74th Amendment and urban missions.
SyllabusGS I · Urbanisation, their problems and their remedies
Prerequisites: Urbanisation — overview · Local Government
The Hook: Flood and Drought in One City
In September 2022, heavy rain flooded parts of Bengaluru, including its technology corridors along the Outer Ring Road; residents were evacuated by boat and tractor. Barely eighteen months later, in March 2024, the same city faced an acute water shortage, with borewells running dry and water tankers in demand across neighbourhoods.
Too much water, then too little — in India’s technology capital. The question this raises is the question of the chapter: is urban India suffering from too many people, or from too little planning and governance?
The Core Concept
Urbanisation in numbers
| Indicator | Figure | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Urban population | 37.7 crore | Census 2011 |
| Level of urbanisation | 31.16% (27.8% in 2001) | Census 2011 |
| Total towns | 7,935 — 4,041 statutory towns + 3,894 census towns | Census 2011 |
| Census towns in 2001 | 1,362 | Census 2001 |
| Million-plus urban agglomerations/cities | 53 | Census 2011 |
| Slum population | About 6.5 crore, in 2,613 towns | Census 2011 |
| Most urbanised State | Goa (62.2%); among large States, Tamil Nadu (48.4%) | Census 2011 |
| Least urbanised State | Himachal Pradesh (10.0%) | Census 2011 |
| Projected urban addition, 2018–2050 | About 41.6 crore | UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018 |
A turning point. In 2001–2011, for the first time since Independence, the absolute increase in urban population (about 9.1 crore) was greater than the increase in rural population.
Definitions that Prelims tests
| Term | Definition (Census 2011) |
|---|---|
| Statutory town | Any place with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee |
| Census town | A place that meets three criteria: (a) population of at least 5,000; (b) at least 75% of the male main working population in non-agricultural work; (c) density of at least 400 persons per sq km |
| Urban agglomeration (UA) | A continuous urban spread of a town and its adjoining outgrowths, or two or more physically contiguous towns |
| Million-plus city / UA | Population of 10 lakh or more |
Census towns are urban in character but are often governed as villages by panchayats — one reason why infrastructure lags behind urban growth.
Nature of Indian urbanisation
| Feature | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Slow but large | A lower urban share than many countries at similar income, but huge absolute numbers |
| Top-heavy | Growth concentrated in large cities and their peripheries |
| Pseudo-urbanisation | Migration driven by rural distress (push) rather than urban jobs (pull), feeding the informal sector and slums |
| Peri-urbanisation | Rapid, unplanned growth at city edges, often outside municipal limits |
| Small-town growth | The jump in census towns shows urbanisation happening in situ, outside the big metros |
| Regional imbalance | Highly urbanised south and west vs low urbanisation in Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Himachal Pradesh |
graph LR
A[Rural push factors
small holdings, distress, lack of jobs] --> C[Migration to cities]
B[Urban pull factors
jobs, education, health, aspirations] --> C
C --> D[Natural increase in cities]
C --> E[Reclassification of villages as towns]
D --> F[Urban growth]
E --> F
F --> G[Pressure on housing, water, transport, governance]Urban growth has three sources: natural increase, net rural-to-urban migration, and reclassification (villages becoming census towns and city boundaries expanding). Natural increase and reclassification together account for a large part of urban growth — migration is important but not the only driver.
Problems of urbanisation
| Problem | What it looks like |
|---|---|
| Housing and slums | About 6.5 crore slum dwellers (Census 2011); insecure tenure; overcrowding |
| Water | Groundwater depletion; dependence on distant sources; unequal supply between neighbourhoods |
| Urban flooding | Encroachment on lakes, wetlands and natural drains; concretisation; outdated drainage |
| Solid waste and sanitation | Legacy dumpsites; low segregation at source; faecal sludge management gaps |
| Transport and congestion | Car-centric growth; weak public transport and last-mile connectivity |
| Pollution and heat | Poor air quality; urban heat island effect from concrete and loss of green cover |
| Informality | Most urban workers in informal jobs without social security; street vendors and waste pickers vulnerable to eviction |
| Governance | Weak devolution, low municipal revenues, multiple parastatal agencies, outdated master plans |
| Social | Spatial segregation (slums vs gated enclaves), crime, isolation of the elderly, exclusion of migrants |
Social life in cities. Louis Wirth’s Urbanism as a Way of Life (1938) described city life as large, dense and heterogeneous — producing anonymity and impersonal ties. In India, cities have also weakened caste restrictions in public spaces and widened choices for women and youth — even as caste and religion shape residential patterns and marriages.
The constitutional framework: 74th Amendment (1992)
| Provision | Content |
|---|---|
| Part IXA, Articles 243P–243ZG | Municipalities |
| Article 243Q | Three types: Nagar Panchayat (area in transition), Municipal Council (smaller urban area), Municipal Corporation (larger urban area) |
| Article 243S | Wards Committees in municipalities with population of 3 lakh or more |
| Article 243T | Reservation for SCs, STs and women (not less than one-third) |
| Article 243U | Five-year term; election within six months of dissolution |
| Article 243Y | State Finance Commission reviews municipal finances |
| Article 243ZA | State Election Commission conducts municipal elections |
| Article 243ZD | District Planning Committee |
| Article 243ZE | Metropolitan Planning Committee for areas of 10 lakh or more |
| Twelfth Schedule | 18 functions — including urban planning, water supply, public health and sanitation, slum improvement and urban poverty alleviation |
The gap: the Twelfth Schedule is a list States may devolve, not must. In many States, key functions (urban planning, water) remain with parastatal agencies, and Metropolitan Planning Committees are weak or absent.
Remedies: missions and reforms
| Mission / policy | Year | Focus |
|---|---|---|
| JNNURM | 2005 | Urban infrastructure and governance reforms in select cities |
| Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban) | 2014; SBM-U 2.0 in 2021 | Sanitation, open-defecation-free status, waste management |
| Smart Cities Mission | 2015 | 100 cities; area-based development and smart solutions |
| AMRUT | 2015; AMRUT 2.0 in 2021 | Water supply, sewerage, green spaces (500 cities in phase 1) |
| PMAY-Urban | 2015 | Housing for the urban poor |
| HRIDAY | 2015 | Heritage city development |
| Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission | 2016 | Clusters of villages with urban amenities |
| Street Vendors Act / PM SVANidhi | 2014 / 2020 | Protection of vending rights; working-capital loans for vendors |
| National Transit Oriented Development Policy | 2017 | Dense, mixed-use development around mass transit |
Reforms experts recommend
- Real devolution of funds, functions and functionaries to elected city governments.
- Municipal finance: property tax reform, user charges, municipal bonds (Ahmedabad issued India’s first municipal bond in 1998).
- Planning: regional and metropolitan plans; bringing peri-urban areas and census towns under urban governance.
- Resilience: protect lakes, wetlands and floodplains; “sponge city” design; heat action plans.
- Inclusion: affordable rental housing, in-situ slum upgrading, social security for informal workers.
Memory Anchors
Census town test: “5-75-400” → 5,000 population · 75% male non-farm workers · 400 per sq km.
74th Amendment numbers: “3 lakh for Wards, 10 lakh for Metro, 18 in the Twelfth” → Wards Committees (243S), Metropolitan Planning Committee (243ZE), Twelfth Schedule functions.
Three sources of urban growth: “Never Mind Rural” → Natural increase · Migration · Reclassification.
One-line Mains hook: “India’s urban problem is less one of too many people than of too little city government.”
For Prelims
- Census 2011: urban share 31.16%; 7,935 towns (4,041 statutory + 3,894 census); 53 million-plus cities/UAs.
- Census town: 5,000 population, 75% male main workers in non-farm work, density 400 per sq km.
- Goa is the most urbanised State; Himachal Pradesh the least (Census 2011).
- 74th Amendment: Part IXA (243P–243ZG); Twelfth Schedule with 18 items; MPC for 10 lakh+ areas.
- Smart Cities Mission and AMRUT were both launched in 2015.
For Mains
- Dimensions: demographic (migration, natural increase), economic (agglomeration, informality), social (slums, segregation, changing family and caste relations), environmental (floods, heat, pollution), governance (74th Amendment, finances, parastatals).
- Keywords: pseudo-urbanisation, peri-urbanisation, census towns, urban sprawl, urban heat island, transit-oriented development, municipal finance, inclusive cities, blue-green infrastructure.
- Value-addition: Census 2011 numbers; the 2001–11 turning point; the Twelfth Schedule gap; Ahmedabad’s 1998 municipal bond; Smart Cities and AMRUT; Louis Wirth on urbanism.
- Balanced position: urbanisation drives growth and social mobility; its costs come from planning and governance deficits, which are fixable.
Common Traps
In the News
- September 2022 — flooding in Bengaluru exposed encroachment on lakes and storm-water drains.
- March 2024 — Bengaluru’s water shortage highlighted groundwater depletion and dependence on distant sources.
- For monthly updates see Current Affairs.
Practice
Prelims
Consider the following criteria used in Census 2011:
- A minimum population of 5,000
- At least 75% of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits
- Presence of a municipality or notified town area committee
Which of the above are among the criteria for a place to be classified as a census town?
Solution
Criteria 1 and 2 apply to census towns (the third census-town criterion is a density of at least 400 per sq km). Criterion 3 defines a statutory town, not a census town.
Answer: A
Which Article of the Constitution provides for a Metropolitan Planning Committee?
Solution
Article 243ZE — Metropolitan Planning Committee for metropolitan areas (population of 10 lakh or more). 243S is Wards Committees; 243Y is the State Finance Commission for municipalities; 243ZD is the District Planning Committee.
Answer: C
According to Census 2011, which one of the following States had the highest proportion of urban population?
Solution
Goa (62.2%). Among the large States, Tamil Nadu (48.4%) was the most urbanised, followed by Kerala and Maharashtra. (Among Union Territories, Delhi was the most urbanised.)
Answer: B
Mains
Urban flooding in Indian cities is more a governance failure than a natural disaster. Critically examine, and suggest remedies.
Solution
Introduction: Recurrent flooding in Mumbai, Chennai, Bengaluru and other cities shows that heavy rainfall turns into disaster mainly where planning and governance fail.
Body:
- Governance causes: encroachment on lakes, wetlands and natural drains; concretisation reducing infiltration; outdated drainage designed for lower rainfall; fragmented responsibility between municipalities and parastatals; poor enforcement of master plans.
- Natural and climate factors: more intense short-duration rainfall; coastal cities facing high tides.
- Social impact: slum dwellers and informal workers lose homes and income first.
- Remedies: restore and protect blue-green infrastructure; sponge-city design; real-time flood warning; updated drainage master plans; empowered city governments under the 74th Amendment; risk-sensitive land-use planning.
Conclusion: Rainfall is natural; urban floods are largely made by land-use and governance decisions. Empowered, accountable city governments and nature-based planning can make cities resilient.
Quick Revision
| Point | One-liner |
|---|---|
| Urban share | 31.16% (Census 2011) |
| Towns | 7,935 = 4,041 statutory + 3,894 census |
| Million-plus | 53 cities/UAs |
| Census town | 5,000 · 75% · 400 per sq km |
| Slums | About 6.5 crore in 2,613 towns |
| 74th Amendment | Part IXA; Twelfth Schedule 18 items |
| MPC / Wards Committees | 10 lakh+ / 3 lakh+ |
| Missions | SBM-U 2014; Smart Cities, AMRUT, PMAY-U 2015 |
Key Takeaways
- India’s urbanisation is large in numbers, uneven across regions and increasingly happening in small towns and city edges.
- Most urban problems — floods, water, slums — trace back to planning and governance deficits.
- The remedy is empowered and financially strong city governments, inclusive housing and nature-based resilience.
Related Topics
- Urbanisation — quick revision
- Urbanisation — practice questions
- Population and Associated Issues
- Local Government
- Disaster Management
- Environmental Pollution