Communalism and Indian Secularism
UPSC notes on communalism and secularism: Bipan Chandra's stages, causes and remedies, Indian vs Western secularism, Articles 25–28 and key judgments.
SyllabusGS I · Communalism, regionalism and secularism
Prerequisites: Communalism, Regionalism and Secularism — overview · Fundamental Rights
The Hook: Can “Secular” Be Removed from the Preamble?
On 25 November 2024, the Supreme Court dismissed a batch of petitions challenging the insertion of the words “socialist” and “secular” into the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976). The petitions had argued that words added during the Emergency, decades after the Constitution was adopted, were invalid.
The Court’s answer rested on a long line of cases holding that secularism was part of the Constitution’s design from the start — the word only made it explicit. That raises the question this page answers: what does secularism mean in India, and how does it guard against communalism?
The Core Concept
Communalism: meaning and stages
Communalism is the belief that people who follow a religion form a community with common secular interests — political, economic, social — that are distinct from, and eventually opposed to, those of other religious communities. It is a political ideology that uses religion, not religiosity itself.
Historian Bipan Chandra described three stages:
graph LR
A[Stage 1
Followers of a religion
share common secular interests] --> B[Stage 2: Liberal communalism
These interests differ from
those of other religions]
B --> C[Stage 3: Extreme communalism
Interests are mutually
incompatible and hostile]The first stage looks harmless; the danger lies in the movement towards the third, where fear and hostility justify exclusion and violence.
Roots of communalism in India
| Phase | Factors |
|---|---|
| Colonial | Enumeration of communities in the Census; separate electorates (Indian Councils Act, 1909); the Communal Award (1932); competition for jobs and representation |
| Partition | Mass violence and displacement in 1947 left lasting memories and mistrust |
| Post-Independence | Political mobilisation on religious lines; economic competition; segregated neighbourhoods; historical and religious disputes; misinformation spread through social media; delays in justice after riots |
Forms in which communalism appears
- Political — appeals to religion for votes (prohibited as a corrupt practice under Section 123(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951).
- Social — stereotyping, social boycotts, residential segregation.
- Violent — riots, targeted attacks, mob lynching.
- Digital — hate speech and fake news amplified online.
State responses
| Instrument | Content |
|---|---|
| Section 153A and 295A of the IPC (carried into the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023) | Punish promoting enmity between groups and deliberate insults to religious beliefs |
| Representation of the People Act, 1951 — Section 123(3) | Appeal to religion, race, caste, community or language is a corrupt practice; in Abhiram Singh v. C.D. Commachen (2017), a seven-judge bench held by 4:3 that this covers the religion of voters too |
| Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991 | Maintains the religious character of places of worship as it existed on 15 August 1947; the Ayodhya dispute was exempted |
| National Integration Council | Set up in the early 1960s to fight communalism, casteism and regionalism |
| Tehseen S. Poonawalla v. Union of India (2018) | Supreme Court guidelines to prevent mob lynching, including district nodal officers |
| Commissions of inquiry | e.g. the Srikrishna Commission on the Mumbai riots of 1992–93 |
| Socio-economic reports | Sachar Committee (2006) on the status of Muslims; Ranganath Misra Commission (2007) on religious and linguistic minorities |
Secularism: the constitutional design
| Provision | Content |
|---|---|
| Preamble | “Secular” added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) |
| Articles 14, 15, 16(2) | Equality; no discrimination on grounds only of religion |
| Article 25 | Freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess, practise and propagate religion — subject to public order, morality, health and other Fundamental Rights; State may regulate secular activities linked to religion and provide for social reform |
| Article 26 | Religious denominations may manage their own affairs in matters of religion |
| Article 27 | No one can be compelled to pay taxes for promoting a particular religion |
| Article 28 | No religious instruction in institutions wholly maintained out of State funds |
| Articles 29, 30 | Cultural and educational rights of minorities |
| Article 44 | State shall endeavour to secure a Uniform Civil Code (DPSP) |
| Article 325 | No one ineligible for the electoral roll on grounds only of religion, race, caste or sex |
| Article 51A(e) | Duty to promote harmony transcending religious diversities |
Judicial position. In Kesavananda Bharati (1973), secularism was described by several judges as part of the basic structure; in S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994), a nine-judge bench affirmed that secularism is a basic feature of the Constitution and that a State government acting against it could be dismissed under Article 356. The essential religious practices test, used since the Shirur Mutt case (1954), decides which practices get the protection of Article 25.
Indian vs Western secularism
| Feature | Western (US/French) model | Indian model |
|---|---|---|
| State–religion relation | Strict separation (“wall of separation” in the US; laïcité in France) | Principled distance (Rajeev Bhargava) — State keeps distance but may engage |
| Attitude to religion | Religion a private matter | Equal respect for all religions (sarva dharma samabhava) |
| Reform | State does not intervene in religion | State may intervene for social reform (Article 25(2)(b)); e.g., temple entry, abolition of untouchability |
| Support | No State funding to religious bodies | State aid to minority institutions permitted (Article 30) |
| Focus | Individual liberty | Individual liberty and community rights and inter-religious equality |
Critiques of Indian secularism include: it is selective or inconsistent across communities; personal laws differ by religion; and the line between “equal respect” and political appeasement or majoritarianism is contested. A balanced answer acknowledges these critiques and returns to the constitutional text and the courts.
Uniform Civil Code. Article 44 is a directive, not an enforceable right. Goa has long had a common civil code (from the Portuguese Civil Code of 1867). The 21st Law Commission (2018) said a UCC was “neither necessary nor desirable at this stage” and suggested reform within personal laws; the 22nd Law Commission sought public views afresh in 2023. Uttarakhand’s Uniform Civil Code came into force in January 2025.
Memory Anchors
Bipan Chandra’s ladder: “Common → Different → Hostile” → “CDH” — stage 1, 2, 3.
Articles 25–28 in one line: “Conscience, Denomination, Tax, Teaching” → 25 conscience · 26 denominations · 27 no religious tax · 28 no religious teaching in State-funded institutions.
Two models: “Wall vs Distance” — the West builds a wall; India keeps a principled distance.
One-line Mains hook: “Indian secularism is not the absence of religion from public life, but the equal presence of all religions under one Constitution.”
For Prelims
- “Secular” and “socialist” were added to the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment (1976); challenges dismissed by the Supreme Court in November 2024.
- S.R. Bommai (1994): secularism is a basic feature.
- Article 27 bars compulsory taxes for promoting a particular religion; Article 28 bars religious instruction in wholly State-funded institutions.
- Places of Worship Act, 1991: cut-off date 15 August 1947.
- Separate electorates: Indian Councils Act, 1909; Communal Award, 1932.
- Abhiram Singh (2017): appeal to voters’ religion is a corrupt practice.
For Mains
- Dimensions: historical (colonial policies, Partition), political (electoral mobilisation), economic (competition, inequality), social (segregation, stereotypes), technological (social-media misinformation), legal-constitutional (Articles 25–30, RPA, IPC/BNS).
- Keywords: principled distance, equal respect, constitutional morality, fraternity, majoritarianism, minority rights, hate speech, social cohesion, essential religious practices.
- Value-addition: Bipan Chandra’s stages; S.R. Bommai; Abhiram Singh; Tehseen Poonawalla; Sachar Committee; Places of Worship Act; Preamble’s “fraternity”.
- Remedies: impartial and professional policing (police reforms), speedy justice after violence, regulation of online hate speech, inter-community dialogue and mixed neighbourhoods, value education, economic inclusion, responsible media.
Common Traps
In the News
- November 2024 — the Supreme Court dismissed petitions challenging “socialist” and “secular” in the Preamble.
- January 2025 — Uttarakhand’s Uniform Civil Code came into force.
Practice
Prelims
Consider the following statements:
- The word “secular” was inserted in the Preamble by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment.
- Article 28 prohibits religious instruction in all educational institutions recognised by the State.
- In S.R. Bommai v. Union of India, the Supreme Court held secularism to be a basic feature of the Constitution.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Solution
Statement 1 is correct (1976). Statement 2 is incorrect — Article 28(1) bars religious instruction only in institutions wholly maintained out of State funds; in State-recognised or aided institutions, no one can be compelled to attend religious instruction (Article 28(3)). Statement 3 is correct (1994).
Answer: B
The Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991 maintains the religious character of places of worship as it existed on
Solution
15 August 1947 — the day of Independence. The Act exempted the Ayodhya dispute, which was decided separately by the Supreme Court in November 2019.
Answer: D
Which Article of the Constitution provides that no person shall be compelled to pay any taxes whose proceeds are appropriated for the promotion or maintenance of a particular religion?
Solution
Article 27. Article 25 is freedom of conscience and religion; Article 26 is freedom to manage religious affairs; Article 28 concerns religious instruction in educational institutions.
Answer: C
Mains
How is the Indian model of secularism different from the Western model? Discuss the challenges it faces today.
Solution
Introduction: Secularism in India is a basic feature of the Constitution (S.R. Bommai, 1994), made explicit in the Preamble by the 42nd Amendment. It differs from the Western model of strict separation.
Body:
- Western model: a “wall of separation” (US) or laïcité (France); religion a private matter; no State support or intervention.
- Indian model: principled distance; equal respect for all religions; State intervention for reform (Article 25(2)(b), Article 17); aid to minority institutions (Article 30); protection of both individual and community rights.
- Challenges: communal polarisation and hate speech; misinformation online; perceptions of selective application; personal law and UCC debate; disputes over places of worship; mob violence; tension between religious freedom and gender equality (essential religious practices cases).
- Way forward: consistent, impartial application of law; police and judicial reforms; value education; inclusive development; dialogue across communities.
Conclusion: Indian secularism is a pragmatic answer to deep religious plurality. Its strength depends on even-handed institutions and on fraternity — the Preamble’s promise that holds plural communities together.
Quick Revision
| Point | One-liner |
|---|---|
| Bipan Chandra | Three stages: common → divergent → hostile |
| Colonial roots | Separate electorates 1909; Communal Award 1932 |
| Preamble | “Secular” — 42nd Amendment, 1976 |
| Basic feature | S.R. Bommai, 1994 |
| Articles 25–28 | Conscience, denominations, no religious tax, no religious teaching in State-funded institutions |
| Places of Worship Act | 1991; cut-off 15 August 1947 |
| RPA 123(3) | Religious appeals a corrupt practice (Abhiram Singh, 2017) |
| Indian model | Principled distance; equal respect |
Key Takeaways
- Communalism is a political ideology, not religiosity; it escalates from shared interests to hostility.
- Indian secularism is principled distance and equal respect, not a wall of separation.
- Remedies combine law, impartial institutions, inclusive development and the constitutional value of fraternity.
Related Topics
- Regionalism in India
- Communalism, Regionalism and Secularism — quick revision
- Communalism, Regionalism and Secularism — practice questions
- Fundamental Rights
- Towards Independence and Partition
- Amendment and the Basic Structure