Indian Literature and Philosophy
Indian literature and philosophy for UPSC — Vedic texts, Sangam literature, classical Sanskrit authors, regional and Persian works, classical languages, six darshanas.
SyllabusGS I · Indian culture — salient aspects of art forms, literature and architecture from ancient to modern times
Prerequisites: Performing Arts, Literature and Philosophy — overview · Vedic and Later Vedic Age
The Hook: What Makes a Language “Classical”?
In October 2024, the Union Cabinet approved “classical language” status for Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali, joining Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia — eleven in all. The status rests on the antiquity of a language’s early texts, a body of ancient literature valued as heritage, and inscriptional evidence.
In other words, a classical language is recognised through its literature. This page maps that literature — and the philosophical schools that so much of it debates.
The Core Concept
1. Vedic literature
| Layer | Contents |
|---|---|
| Samhitas | Four Vedas: Rig (hymns; oldest), Sama (melodies for chanting — roots of Indian music), Yajur (sacrificial formulae; Shukla and Krishna recensions), Atharva (charms, spells, everyday life) |
| Brahmanas | Prose explanations of rituals (e.g., Shatapatha Brahmana) |
| Aranyakas | “Forest texts” — meditation on ritual symbolism |
| Upanishads | Philosophical enquiry into Brahman and Atman; the end of the Veda (Vedanta) |
| Vedangas (six) | Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Chhanda (metre), Jyotisha (astronomy) |
- The Gayatri mantra is in the Rig Veda; the Purusha Sukta is in its tenth mandala.
- The national motto “Satyameva Jayate” comes from the Mundaka Upanishad.
- After the Vedas came the epics (Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki; Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, containing the Bhagavad Gita) and the 18 Mahapuranas.
2. Sangam literature (Tamil)
By tradition, three Sangams (assemblies of poets) were held under Pandya patronage at Madurai; the surviving works belong to the third.
| Text / group | Note |
|---|---|
| Tolkappiyam | Tolkappiyar; grammar and poetics — the earliest extant Tamil work |
| Ettuthokai | Eight anthologies |
| Pattuppattu | Ten idylls |
| Patinenkilkanakku | Eighteen minor works, including the Tirukkural of Tiruvalluvar (ethics, polity, love) |
| Silappadikaram | Ilango Adigal — story of Kannagi and Kovalan |
| Manimekalai | Sittalai Sattanar — sequel; Buddhist in outlook |
Sangam poems are classified as akam (inner — love) and puram (outer — war, heroism, ethics), and set in five landscapes (tinai).
3. Classical Sanskrit and knowledge texts
| Author | Work(s) | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Panini | Ashtadhyayi | Sanskrit grammar |
| Patanjali | Mahabhashya | Commentary on Panini (the Yoga Sutras are traditionally attributed to a Patanjali too) |
| Kautilya | Arthashastra | Statecraft, economy |
| Bhasa | Svapnavasavadattam | Early dramatist |
| Kalidasa | Plays: Abhijnanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam; poems: Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, Ritusamhara | Gupta age |
| Shudraka | Mrichchhakatika (“The Little Clay Cart”) | Social drama |
| Vishakhadatta | Mudrarakshasa, Devichandraguptam | Political drama |
| Banabhatta | Harshacharita, Kadambari | Court poet of Harsha |
| Harsha | Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika | King-dramatist |
| Kalhana | Rajatarangini | 12th-century history of Kashmir |
| Jayadeva | Gita Govinda | 12th-century; Radha–Krishna |
| Aryabhata | Aryabhatiya (499 CE) | Mathematics, astronomy |
| Varahamihira | Brihat Samhita, Pancha Siddhantika | Astronomy, encyclopaedia |
| Charaka / Sushruta | Charaka Samhita / Sushruta Samhita | Medicine / surgery |
| Amarasimha | Amarakosha | Thesaurus |
| — | Panchatantra (attributed to Vishnu Sharma) | Animal fables on statecraft |
4. Buddhist, Jain and other early texts
- Buddhist: the Tripitaka in Pali — Vinaya (monastic rules), Sutta (discourses), Abhidhamma (philosophy); the Jatakas; Milindapanho (dialogue of King Menander and Nagasena); the Sri Lankan chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa; Ashvaghosha’s Buddhacharita (Sanskrit).
- Jain: the Agamas in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit; Hemachandra’s works (12th century).
5. Medieval literature
| Language | Author — work |
|---|---|
| Kannada | Kavirajamarga — attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I (or his court poet); earliest extant Kannada work on poetics; Pampa, Ponna, Ranna — the “three gems” |
| Telugu | Nannaya, Tikkana, Errana — Telugu Mahabharata; Krishnadevaraya — Amuktamalyada |
| Malayalam | Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan — regarded as the father of modern Malayalam |
| Marathi | Jnaneshwar — Jnaneshwari (commentary on the Gita); Tukaram — abhangs |
| Bengali | Krittibas Ojha — Bengali Ramayana; Chandidas |
| Assamese | Sankardeva — Ankiya Naat and Borgeet |
| Hindi (Awadhi, Braj) | Tulsidas — Ramcharitmanas (Awadhi); Surdas — Sursagar (Braj); Malik Muhammad Jayasi — Padmavat (Awadhi); Kabir — Bijak |
| Punjabi | Guru Granth Sahib — compiled by Guru Arjan Dev (1604) |
| Persian | Amir Khusrau; Abul Fazl — Akbarnama, Ain-i-Akbari; Badauni — Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh; Gulbadan Begum — Humayun-nama; Dara Shikoh — Sirr-i-Akbar (Upanishads in Persian), Majma-ul-Bahrain |
| Chagatai Turkish | Babur — Baburnama |
6. Indian philosophy
Indian schools are traditionally grouped by their attitude to the authority of the Vedas: astika (accept) and nastika (reject).
| Astika school | Traditional founder | Core idea |
|---|---|---|
| Samkhya | Kapila | Dualism of purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter); often called the oldest system |
| Yoga | Patanjali | Discipline of mind through the eight limbs (ashtanga) |
| Nyaya | Gautama (Akshapada) | Logic and valid means of knowledge (pramanas) |
| Vaisheshika | Kanada | Atomism — matter made of indivisible paramanus |
| Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa) | Jaimini | Ritual action (karma) and interpretation of the Vedas |
| Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) | Badarayana (Brahma Sutras) | Nature of Brahman, based on the Upanishads |
The schools are paired: Samkhya–Yoga, Nyaya–Vaisheshika, Mimamsa–Vedanta.
| Nastika school | Core idea |
|---|---|
| Buddhism | Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, anatta (no permanent self) |
| Jainism | Anekantavada (many-sidedness of truth), syadvada, ahimsa |
| Charvaka / Lokayata | Materialism; perception (pratyaksha) as the only valid means of knowledge |
| Ajivika | Determinism (niyati) — Makkhali Gosala |
Vedanta sub-schools:
| School | Teacher | View of Brahman and the self |
|---|---|---|
| Advaita (non-dualism) | Shankaracharya (8th c.) | Brahman alone is real; the world is maya |
| Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) | Ramanuja (11th–12th c.) | Souls and world are real, as attributes of Brahman |
| Dvaita (dualism) | Madhvacharya (13th c.) | God and souls are eternally distinct |
| Dvaitadvaita | Nimbarka | Difference and non-difference |
| Shuddhadvaita | Vallabhacharya | “Pure” non-dualism; devotion (pushti marga) |
graph TD
A["Indian philosophy"] --> B["Astika: accept Vedas"]
A --> C["Nastika: reject Vedas"]
B --> D["Samkhya - Yoga"]
B --> E["Nyaya - Vaisheshika"]
B --> F["Mimamsa - Vedanta"]
F --> G["Advaita: Shankara"]
F --> H["Vishishtadvaita: Ramanuja"]
F --> I["Dvaita: Madhva"]
C --> J["Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, Ajivika"]Memory Anchors
Six darshanas and founders — “Kind Pandits Give Kids Juicy Bananas”: Kapila (Samkhya), Patanjali (Yoga), Gautama (Nyaya), Kanada (Vaisheshika), Jaimini (Mimamsa), Badarayana (Vedanta).
Vedanta’s ABC by century: Advaita — Shankara (8th) → Vishishtadvaita — Ramanuja (11th–12th) → Dvaita — Madhva (13th): “the self moves further from Brahman with each century.”
Sangam epics — “Silappadikaram is the anklet; Manimekalai is the daughter”: the anklet of Kannagi drives the first; Manimekalai, daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, is the heroine of the second.
One-line Mains hook: Indian thought was argumentative from the start — astika and nastika schools debated knowledge, self and ethics for two millennia, a tradition of reasoned dissent that underpins pluralism.
For Prelims
- Satyameva Jayate — Mundaka Upanishad.
- Tolkappiyam — earliest extant Tamil work; Tirukkural — Tiruvalluvar; Silappadikaram — Ilango Adigal.
- Mrichchhakatika — Shudraka; Mudrarakshasa — Vishakhadatta; Rajatarangini — Kalhana.
- Kavirajamarga — attributed to Amoghavarsha I (Rashtrakuta); earliest extant Kannada literary work.
- Vaisheshika — Kanada, atomism; Nyaya — logic; Charvaka — only perception.
- Vishishtadvaita — Ramanuja; Dvaita — Madhva.
- Classical languages (2024): 11 — Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, Bengali.
For Mains
- Dimensions: literature as a historical source (Sangam texts on society and trade; Rajatarangini as history); language and identity (classical languages, Bhakti in vernaculars); philosophy and ethics (non-violence, pluralism); synthesis (Dara Shikoh’s translations; Persian and Sanskrit exchange).
- Keywords: astika–nastika, pramana, anekantavada, Vedanta, Bhakti vernaculars, translation, syncretism, oral tradition.
- Value-addition: the Bhakti saints made literature accessible in people’s languages; the Tirukkural’s ethics in public life; anekantavada as a resource for tolerance; Akbar’s translation bureau (Maktab Khana).
Common Traps
In the News
- October 2024 — the Union Cabinet approved classical language status for Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali.
Practice
Prelims
Consider the following pairs:
| Work | Author |
|---|---|
| 1. Mudrarakshasa | Vishakhadatta |
| 2. Mrichchhakatika | Bhasa |
| 3. Rajatarangini | Kalhana |
| 4. Harshacharita | Kalidasa |
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Solution
Pairs 1 and 3 are correct. Mrichchhakatika is by Shudraka (Bhasa wrote Svapnavasavadattam); Harshacharita is by Banabhatta, court poet of Harsha.
Answer: B
Which school of Indian philosophy, founded by Kanada, holds that the material world is made up of indivisible atoms?
Solution
The Vaisheshika school of Kanada propounded atomism (paramanu). Nyaya focuses on logic; Samkhya on the dualism of purusha and prakriti; Mimamsa on Vedic ritual and its interpretation.
Answer: A
Consider the following statements:
- Tolkappiyam is a work on Tamil grammar and poetics.
- Silappadikaram was composed by Tiruvalluvar.
- Sangam poems are classified into akam and puram.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Solution
Statements 1 and 3 are correct. Statement 2 is wrong — Silappadikaram is by Ilango Adigal; Tiruvalluvar composed the Tirukkural.
Answer: C
Mains
Sangam literature is as much a source of history as a body of poetry. Elaborate.
Solution
Introduction: The Sangam corpus — Tolkappiyam, Ettuthokai, Pattuppattu, Patinenkilkanakku and the epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai — is the earliest body of Tamil literature and a key source for early south Indian history.
Body:
- Polity: references to the Chera, Chola and Pandya kings, chieftains, warfare and hero-stones (puram poems).
- Economy: agrarian landscapes (tinai), crafts, and trade with the Roman world through ports such as Muziris and Puhar — corroborated by archaeology.
- Society: occupational groups, the position of women, bards and patrons.
- Religion and ethics: worship of Murugan and other deities; Jain and Buddhist influence; the Tirukkural’s ethical code.
- Limits: poetic conventions, uncertain dating, idealisation — so it must be read alongside inscriptions and archaeology.
Conclusion: Read critically, Sangam literature opens a window on early Tamil society unmatched by other sources for the period.
Quick Revision
| Point | One-liner |
|---|---|
| Vedangas | Six: shiksha, kalpa, vyakarana, nirukta, chhanda, jyotisha |
| Satyameva Jayate | Mundaka Upanishad |
| Tirukkural | Tiruvalluvar |
| Silappadikaram / Manimekalai | Ilango Adigal / Sittalai Sattanar |
| Kalidasa | Shakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha |
| Rajatarangini | Kalhana |
| Six darshanas | Kapila, Patanjali, Gautama, Kanada, Jaimini, Badarayana |
| Vedanta | Shankara, Ramanuja, Madhva |
| Classical languages | 11 (after 2024) |
Key Takeaways
- Attach every text to its author, language and period — Prelims options swap them freely.
- The six darshanas come in three pairs; Vedanta itself split into Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita.
- For Mains, use literature as a historical source and as evidence of India’s tradition of debate and synthesis.
Related Topics
- Classical Dance, Music and Theatre
- Performing Arts, Literature and Philosophy — quick revision
- Performing Arts, Literature and Philosophy — practice questions
- Vedic and Later Vedic Age
- Moral Thinkers and Philosophers